The answer came in the form of a fully automatic system which quite literally sends out ‘feelers’ (like a the root system of a plant) which branch out, sub-dividing as they go, until inevitably they get to their destination, despite sometimes having to take a torturous route.  Essentially, the first feeler to arrive at its goal immediately sends a message back down the route (which it has remembered) and on arrival the rest of the message is funneled down that pathway.   Hence the fastest possible route always wins and it can accommodate breaks in the standard network.

To make this possible, the system worked by connecting computers located throughout America, all of which had been programmed to receive messages and then pass them on in accordance with set procedures.   Thus the system used the telephone network, but relied on its own artificial intelligence to direct messages and circumnavigate problems.  During the late 60’s the military network was expanded to include the top educational establishments and it was not long before university types realised the potential to access the content of each others computer networks.  E-mail as we know it today gradually evolved and the software systems controlling the traffic were adapted and improved to cope with the new demands being placed upon it.

However, despite the systems robustness, it suffered from the fact that so many different computer networks were involved, many with totally different platforms (operating systems, i.e. Unix, Dos etc).   Fortunately a group of scientists developed the idea of a Standard Display System, which could show exactly the same data layout on any screen, providing a small piece of software was programmed to suit each platform.  That Standard Display System is now known as HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol) and the software package required is known as a Browser.  Thus the World Wide Web was born and anyone accessing what became known as the Internet (interconnected networks) could read exactly the same content – regardless of type of computer or operating system.  The final piece of the gig-saw fell into place when commercial companies were allowed to connect to the network; the rest as they say, is history.

If only life was so simple!   Needless to say it wasn’t too long before someone threw a spanner in the works...  Although anyone could write their own browser (providing it conformed to the internationally agreed standard) Netscape rapidly became the de facto package.   For once, Bill Gates got a prediction hopelessly wrong - he dismissed the Internet as an irrelevance!  However, Bill learns very quickly, and Microsoft’s Internet Explorer (I.E.) soon arrived on the seen.  As did a lawsuit from Netscape, who claimed that by providing I.E. free with Windows was anti-competitive under U.S. law.   Needless to say, Netscape’s domination of the browser market is being rapidly whittled away by I.E.

But more importantly, this rivalry has led both parties to accelerate development of their respective browsers, encouraging them to introduce new features in advance of them being ratified as part of the Internationally Accepted Standard for HTTP!  This is a very important fact to be aware of, for it helps to explain how two people can access the same website and yet see two different images - much to the annoyance of computer programmers everywhere.  It should therefore be realised that the design of websites is not the normal precise science that the computer world has become accustomed to.  Programmers must now thread a complex path through this potential minefield and make certain compromises to achieve the best overall results.

This situation is further exasperated by other factors that affect how we access websites and how they are displayed on screen. For instance:

Type of computer:  The processing power, memory capacity and graphics card of the computer will have a significant effect on download speed and the rate at which images appear and re-appear on screen.  Computer specifications continue to advance at a phenomenal rate and it follows that the latest technology will always give the best results.

Monitor specification:  One might be tempted to think that people with mono screens are unlikely to access the web, due to the assumed age of the machine.  But don’t forget all those portables, many of which are still black & white.  Naturally this seriously affects the way data and images are displayed and how user’s attention is drawn to certain key aspects of the display.

The main consideration when it comes to screens is whether they are VGA or SVGA resolution.  Generally those using less than VGA can be discounted, but a surprising number of users still have VGA monitors (640*480 pixels) as opposed to Super VGA (600*800 pixels).  Furthermore, quite a number of relatively new machines (which have SVGA as standard) are incorrectly configured to VGA specification!  This can be changed within Windows via Control Panel and the Display option, as can the number of colours available, which should be set at the maximum for the best results.  Early machines may struggle with these settings due to basic lack of computing power – but it demonstrates yet again the dilemma facing programmers – who do you cater for?

The latest monitors and graphic cards offer even higher resolutions, but these are rarely taken advantage of as yet and can be discounted for the time being.

Modems:  Communications technology and protocols are at the heart of the Internet’s success and demands for improvements are constant.  Again the latest models achieve amazing results, but you would be fool hardy to assume that everyone has access to these - reality dictates that a high proportion of users constantly lag behind when it comes to equipment.   Regardless of hardware manufacturer claims of 56k transfer rates, a normal analogue connection will not achieve more than 42k, and subject to line quality, many run at 60-70% of that.

DACS units:  These are small junction boxes that replace a standard wall socket to enable more than one analogue line number per physical line – very useful for doubling the lines available within a building without installing another cable.  However those using a line via a DACS will find themselves automatically limited to 28k – oddly enough, BT don’t always tell you that!

ISDN and Business Highway:   These are digital solutions from BT and offer far superior transfer rates.   Most UK users are connected to a digital network now, but the vast majority loose out during the crucial last few inches, as the signal is converted to analogue from the wall socket to the handset/modem.  Business Highway is generally cheaper to install and run than a full ISDN service and for many people makes more sense.

ISDN offers two digital lines, both capable of 64k transfer rates.  The speed advantage of using a 64k line ought to be obvious, but it is further enhanced by the quality of the digital signal, resulting in far less interruptions, delays and failures.  The two 64k lines facilitate speech and data transfer at the same time – or – they can be combined to give one 128k service!

Business Highway on the other hand gives you two analogue and two digital lines. These can be combined to offer:

1. Two analogue calls.
2. One analogue call and one digital call at 64k.
3. No analogue calls but one digital call at 128k.

Unless a user can genuinely make extensive use of the 128k capability of full ISDN, they are probably better off with the flexibility and cost effectiveness of Business Highway.  However, when using Business Highway to give 128k, anyone attempting to dial IN or OUT on any of the associated analogue lines will momentarily drop the line speed down to 64k.  This may be of little consequence unless it is being used for Video Conferencing (which can operate at 64k, but the screen refresh rate diminishes dramatically).  If Video Conferencing is a primary consideration, full ISDN is the way to go.

Both ISDN and Business Highway require the use of a terminal adapter in lieu of a modem – these often come in the form of a card and fit into a computer’s expansion slot.  Digital fax services (Group 4) are much quicker than the standard analogue systems (Group 3), but unless the recipient is also running Group 4, no benefit will be gained.  Equally, to enjoy high speed web access (64k or 128k), your Internet Service Provider (ISP) must be able to offer the equivalent connection.

It should be noted that 128k connections are achieved by using two lines simultaneously and therefore incur the costs of TWO phone calls - although as with 64k connections, the time taken to complete transfers should be dramatically less.  It should also be noted that the ‘free’ call allowance built into the digital line rentals CANNOT be used against 0845 numbers – i.e. it cannot be off-set against the cost of the most common ISP connections.  To make use of this allowance you must therefore make sufficient normal phone calls to match the amount in question.

Leased Lines:  A Leased Line is simply a permanent 128k ISDN connection, available at any time and charged 24hrs per day.

Cable Connections:  Cable subscribers can often get 64k-line speed as standard.

Internet Service Provider:   The speed capability of the modem and phone line may be irrelevant if the ISP can’t handle connections at that rate, or if the service is not configured correctly to take advantage of it.  The overwhelming number of users have no idea of this connection specification.

Free ISP Connections:  Is there really such a thing as a ‘free meal’ – or does the Yorkshire saying ‘you don’t get owt for nowt’ hold true?  Answer – choose very carefully and you will be pleasantly surprised.  However, you do need to be careful.   The basis behind the best of the free ISPs is their 0845 access numbers – these permit national access at local call rates – but even so they allow the ISP to negotiate a percentage commission from the telecom provider.  Assuming that is the case and assuming no other complications, you are a winner!  But watch out…

1. Some 0845 numbers do not drop down to the true evening/weekend local rate charges after 18.00hrs.
2.  
3. Because the ISP gets a percentage cut from your call, lo and behold, some services mysteriously take an inordinate length of time to log-on and verify your password.
4.  
5. Some free ISPs supplement their income by incorporating ‘banner adverts’ on screen, with vendors trying to sell you everything from toothpaste to holidays.  Such screen displays affect loading time and therefore the time you are on-line.
6.  
7. Some free ISPs insist that you use a specific browser and further insist on modifying that browser to advertise their service.  Many users have reported difficulty in removing such modifications to their system/configuration.
8.  
9. Some free ISPs are reputed to sell user’s details to other organisations.
10.  
11. Some free ISP services are said to be prepared to tell the owners of websites that you access - who you are and what other sites you have visited.

So the moral of the story is – choose carefully.  As a rule of thumb, free services have been known to slow dramatically after 18.00hrs and at the weekend, due to the type of user that they attract.   However even the best paid-for ISP can experience failure due to gremlins – so most professionals have both types of service installed – just in case.

Free Webspace:  Ask yourself why!  Do people usually give you something for nothing?  Do you smell a rat?   Consider the points raised above and then consider that the technical specifications involved in hosting a website are much more complex.  A professional consultant who knew everything about the Internet but had no experience of individual ISPs, would probably spend in excess of a week on the telephone determining where to host their site!

Browsers:  As stated earlier, frustratingly, not all browsers comply with the strict HTTP standards as agreed at any given time.  Big players tend to introduce new features and then try to bully the authorities into adopting them as standard.  The other BIG consideration is the age of the browser in use.  Although free upgrades are often available, most users tend to stick with the browser that came loaded on their machine, hence programmers use the very latest techniques at their peril – for not everyone will be able to see the results on screen!  So type AND age of browser are of concern.

The programmer’s task can best be helped by estimating who is most likely to access the site, thereby constructing a user profile.  From this information a typical computer specification can be gauged and the appropriate route taken.  The average user’s age, attitude, likes and dislikes can equally have an impact on the way the pages are designed.   It therefore pays to carefully quantify who is going to use the site.

Domain names are used to identify the country of origin of the website, hence …uk for the United Kingdom, …es for Spain, …de for Germany, …fr for France, …ca for Canada, …au for Australia, …nz for New Zealand etc.  Although technically …us exists for the U.S.A., because they were first on the scene, they tend to use what is known as the Top Level Domain Names, i.e. …com, …net and …org.  These later domains have also come to represent companies who regard themselves as being truly international in scope and stature.  Consequently, the BBC use www. bbc.co.uk AND www. bbc.com since they want to relate to both the home market and the world scene.

In the UK we have …co.uk and ...com.uk for companies, …org.uk for non-profit organisations, …ltd.uk for those who can produce the appropriate certification – as with …plc.uk; …net.uk for companies concerned with the provision of Internet services, and …sch.uk, …ac.uk, …gov.uk, …nhs.uk, …police.uk and mod.uk as you would imagine.

If a company wish to take orders over the web and that necessitates taking Credit Card details, they must use a Secure Server to ensure that the data cannot be intercepted by unscrupulous individuals.  This involves having having the relevant order page located on a Secure Server which has been certified by one of the two international authentication bodies as using the appropriate encryption protocol and being operated by a legitimate organisation registered with the proper government authorities.  The Padlock Logo should be visible on the page to prove that this official status has been sanctioned.

Murphy’s Law:   Regardless of all other factors, the Internet is quite capable of seizing up for no apparent reason!  Be patient, particularly if America has just woken up!